CREATING LANGUAGE FOR CLASSROOM INTERACTION

CREATING LANGUAGE FOR CLASSROOM INTERACTION

LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION

Education is a development process that often includes a particular understanding of the nature of knowledge. This understanding is given expression in a particular social or ideological context with its particular policy and implementation agendas. It is an expression of how human learning and development occurs and how they can be encouraged. Education is seen as a developmental process of change for the better in the interest of the society that designs it and the individual that receives it.

Quality education is the kind of education that gives learners the ability to learn and discuss abstract ideas, liberates learners’ minds from ignorance, opens up new perspectives and extends their horizons by widening frontiers of knowledge. Quality education requires that learners take an active part in knowledge creation through critical thinking, discussion, dialogue, asking questions and solving problems. However, learners can only actively participate in knowledge creation if they are allowed to use the language they understand very well, which, in most cases, is the language they usually speak in their day-to-day life.

Quality of education cannot be divorced from goals of education, it is equally important not to divorce the question of language of instruction from quality of education. This is due to the role that the language of instruction plays in determining the quality of education. Language of instruction is a vehicle through which education is delivered. The role of language of instruction can be likened to that of pipes in carrying water from one destination to another or that of copper wires in transmitting electricity from one station to another. Just as a pipe is an important medium in carrying water, and a copper wire an important medium for transmitting electricity, the language of instruction is an indispensable medium for carrying, or transmitting education from teachers to learners and among learners. As a matter of efficiency and efficacy, only the language which teachers and students understand can effectively function as the language of instruction. Only when teachers and students understand the language of instruction are they able to discuss, debate, ask and answer questions, ask for clarification and therefore construct and generate knowledge,. These are activities that are a pre-requisite to learning and whose level determines the quality of education. Thus, the language of instruction is an important factor in determining the quality of education.

AURAL ORAL SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

     Much of   our language-teaching energy is devoted to instruction in   mastering English conversation. However, numerous other forms of spoken language are also   important to incorporate into a language course, especially in teaching listening comprehension. It is   so  important  to  develop  Aural  and  oral  skills   in our  learners because  one  way  or the  other their  proficiency   in  the  target  language  is  to  be  judged  by  how  well   they  conduct  themselves  in  such a language.   From  a  communicative,  pragmatic  view  of   the   language classroom, listening  and  speaking skills  are  closely  intertwined. More often  than  not, ESL curricula  that  treat  oral  communication  skills  will  simply  be  labeled  as “Listening/Speaking” courses . People  will   be  able to  tell  whether  they  understand  the  language or  not  by  how  well  their  listening  and   speaking skills   are utilized/ commanded.

     Depending on the   level,  a  student  might  claim  to perfectly  understand  when  others   talk to him/her(listening); however, that  is  not  likely  to  be  believed  unless he/she  provides  a  suitable  answer  in  words (speaking/oral  production) .Therefore, teachers  are   not  to  neglect  such skills  in the   target  language. Every skill is important when acquiring a language and; none is to be neglected.      

AURAL SKILLS

     Such  skills  are   important  because  in  order  to  properly  interact  one  needs   to  understand  what  is  said.  Otherwise, interaction will be limited. Listening is not a one-way street.  It is not merely the process of a unidirectional receiving of audible symbols. But , that  is  just  the  beginning of  what is  a  number  of  different  cognitive and  affective mechanisms .  The importance of   listening in language learning can hardly be overestimated. Through reception, we internalize linguistic information without which we could not produce language. Listening competence is universally “larger’ than speaking competence .

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING LISTENING TECNIQUES

1. In  an  interactive,  four-skill curriculum, make  sure that  you  don’t  overlook  the   importance  of  techniques that  specifically develop listening comprehension  competence.

2. Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.

3. Utilize authentic language and contexts.

4.  Carefully consider the form of listeners’ responses.

5.  Encourage the development of listening strategies.

6.  Include both bottom-up and top –down listening techniques.

ORAL- SKILLS

     Much of   our language-teaching energy is devoted to instruction in   mastering English conversation.  The  benchmark  of  successful  language  acquisition  is  almost  always  the  demonstration  of  an ability  to  accomplish  pragmatic  goals  through  interactive discourse with  other speakers  of  the  language . The conversation class is something of an enigma in language teaching. The  goals  and  the techniques  for  teaching  conversation  are  extremely  diverse, depending  on  the  student, teacher, and overall  context  of  the  class.     

TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

     Current approaches to pronunciation contrast starkly with the early approaches.  Rather  than  attempting only  to  build a learner’s  articulatory competence from  the  bottom  up, and  simply as  the  mastery of  a list  of  phonemes and  allophones,  a top-down approach is  taken in  which the  most  relevant features of  pronunciation- stress, rhythm,  and  intonation-  are  given high  priority. Instead  of  teaching  only  the role of  articulation within words, or  at  best, phrases, we  teach  its  role in  a  whole of  discourse. The  contemporary views [of  language] hold  that  the  sounds  of  a  language  are  less  crucial for understanding than  the  way they  are  organized. The rhythm and  intonation of  English are  two major organizing  structures that  native  speakers rely  on to  process  speech…..Because of  their  major roles in  communication,  rhythm and  intonation merit greater priority in the   teaching  program that  attention to  individual sounds.

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING SPEAKING TECNIQUES

1.  Use  techniques  that  cover  the  spectrum  of  learner needs,  from  language based focus on  accuracy  to  message-based focus on  interaction, meaning,  and  fluency.

2. Provide intrinsically- motivating skills.

3.  Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.

4.  Provide appropriate feedback and correction.

5.  Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.

6.  Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.

7.  Encourage the   development of speaking strategies.

SEMINAR

The word ‘seminar’ is derived from the Latin word ‘seminariam’ which means “seed plots”. Seminar is a form of academic instruction at an institution. Nowadays it is used in other universities as well as for commercial events in various fields apart from higher education. It brings together small groups for focusing on one particular topic or subject. Every one present is supposed to take active part in the following discussions. It familiarizes the students with the selected topic more extensively.  It is an informal method of teaching. Seminars are conducted in the classroom of undergraduate classes.

Objectives of Conducting Seminar

1] Encouragement for Self-study

2] Encouragement for reading reference books

3] Use of computer and internet facilities for updating the knowledge.

4] Presentation skills are developed along with self confidence

5] Teaching and learning becomes a happy experience for both teacher and student.

6] Helps to overcome the problem of stage fear.

The Procedure of Conducting Seminar

1] A topic is allotted to the student from the syllabus as per his/her choice or interest. At least fifteen days are given for preparation of the topic. The date of seminar is fixed on the same day of allotment.

2] Necessary books and articles, list of reference books is provided to the students as per their requirement from the library. Students go to the library and search the required material, data and prepare their own notes. They also use the internet facility.

3] The collected information, data is checked and rearranged by the teacher. Now it is ready for the final seminar.

4] The student delivers the seminar in the class. Use of maps, diagrams, charts along with the blackboard is allowed for explaining the topic. If a student wishes to use power point, it is also allowed.

5] After presentation, the topic is open for discussion. Questions are asked by the students and they are answered by the seminary. If necessary, the teacher interferes and takes part in the discussion.

6] The details of the topic and other related information which is not included in the seminar is further given by the teacher. On an average, twenty minutes are available for one student. The duration of time may change.

7] The notes prepared by the student are further circulated in the class.

Advantages of Conducting Seminar

§  Helps the learner to develop analytical and critical thinking.

§  The presenter can be evaluated with respect to his skill in organizing and presenting given subject matter in a systematic way.

§  Develop in learners self reliance and self confidence.

§  Develops the ability to comprehend major ideas by listening.

§  Develops the ability to raise relevant and pin-pointed questions.

Disadvantages of Conducting Seminar

§  Lack of preparation on the part of the paper presenter may make the seminar a mere waste.

§  The formal structure of seminar restricts the participants from asking questions as and when needed.

§  The success of the seminar fully depends on the ability of the person who is presenting the topic . His inability will create so many problems.

DISCUSSION

Discussion is an exchange of ideas with all the members of the group participating in it accompanied by active learning. It is a free interchange of facts , concepts, information, viewpoints, data ,etc. regarding a topic by a group. Discussions can play a valuable role in lecture courses, seminars, quiz sections, labs, studios and a variety of other settings.  A well-planned discussion can encourage and stimulate student learning and add variety to your class.  While “good” discussions can be a powerful tool for encouraging student learning, successful discussions rarely happen spontaneously. Preparing ahead of time will help you define a clear focus by establishing goals and student expectations for the discussion.

Objectives Of Discussion

§  To stimulate reflective thinking

§  To enrich previous knowledge.

§  To encourage creative expression.

§  To develop desirable social attitudes by participating in groups.

§  To practice the technique of co-operative thinking.

§  To develop the habit of group work.

Principles of Discussion

Following are the different principles to be followed while conducting discussion ;

§  Every discussion should have some purpose.

§  Topic of discussion should be related to the common needs and interests of the participants.

§  Students should have sufficient information and knowledge about the topic of discussion.

§  Adequate responsibilities have to be assigned to all individual members.

§  The group leader should take initiative to report the progress of the progress of the discussion to the outside world.

§  A fixed time schedule should be drawn up for the discussion .

§  The teacher should ensure active participation of the members.

Steps to Facilitate Effective Classroom Discussions

1.        Prepare students to participate in discussions by:

§  Explaining why you think class discussions are important, how you plan to use them during your course and (if you plan to do so) how you will grade students on participation in class discussions

§  Discussing the various methods and ground rules you will use to encourage participation (e.g., voluntary hand-raising, random calling on students by the lecturer, by seating order, permitting students to say, “I pass; please call on me later,” etc.)

§  Creating an environment that encourages students to feel comfortable about speaking during class discussions (e.g., if possible, arranging chairs so that students can see each other; reassuring students that all questions and different viewpoints are valued; getting to know your students and helping them get to know each other; breaking large classes down into manageable smaller groups for discussions)

§  Alerting students if a class discussion will be based on a reading assignment … Asking students to take notes on the reading and/or write down some thoughts on questions that you intend to pose during the discussion … Asking students to write down questions to pose during the discussion

§  Listing out and posting the key questions that you want to cover during the discussion

2.      Ask meaningful, well-constructed questions that have multiple valid answers and will provoke discussion, while helping students explore the key concepts you want to cover. Types of questions include:

§ Application questions that help students apply concepts, principles or generalizations in different contexts – e.g., “How can you apply what you have learned about adult learning theory to your own teaching practices?

§ Analytical questions that encourage students to pull apart different elements of the material they have been learning about to draw comparisons and contrasts, identify causes and effects; reason through explanations or arguments; etc.

§ Synthesis questions that require students to integrate the elements of the material in new and different ways .

§ Evaluation questions that require students to make informed judgments, using some combination of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and/or synthesis .

§  Problem-solving questions that challenge students to use their creativity, as well as the knowledge they have gained .

3.       Facilitate and manage student discussion by:

§  Providing a common experience to get the discussion started – e.g., a reading, film, tape, exercise

§  Asking stimulating questions

§  Giving students time to reflect on your question rather than rushing to “fill the silence”

§   Monitoring participation so that you don’t call on the same few eager students too frequently .

§  Encouraging non-participating students to join the discussion by requesting that they read something out loud or posing a question that you know they will be able to answer directly to them .

§  Demonstrating your valuing of all student contributions in appropriate ways – e.g., praising correct answers, letting students know when they have brought up a perspective that is interesting/different/new/etc. for you, asking students to expand on their answers when they are incomplete, helping students understand the implications of an answer that seems wrong to you, asking students to explain their answers when they are unclear to you, asking other students to comment on a student’s answer that is incomplete, unclear or incorrect rather than correcting the student directly, asking students to help each other with their answers .

§  Asking students for help when the room remains

§  Leaving time to summarize key points before moving on to another topic.

§  Asking students to summarize the main points rather than always doing this yourself .

§  Having students write down the 3 most important things they learned from the discussion, as well as any questions they still have and pass these in anonymously … Reviewing these comments and questions and addressing misconceptions and questions during the next class.

Benefits of Getting Students to Participate in Classroom Discussions

Participation is one of those workhorse instructional strategies easy to use, straightforward, expected, and often quite successful at accomplishing a number of learning goals. It’s good to remind ourselves of its many different uses, especially on those days when getting students to participate feels like pulling hens’ teeth.

·        Participation adds interest : It’s hard to maintain students’ focus and attention when all they hear is the professor talking. It helps to hear another voice as well as an answer or another point of view.

·        Participation engages students : A good question can pique their interest, make them wonder why, get them to think, and motivate them to make connections with the content. This benefit is magnified when teachers play a bit with the question, when they repeat it, write it on the board, and don’t call on the first hand they see.

·        Participation provides the teacher feedback : When students answer or try to explain, teachers can see the extent of their understanding. They can correct (or help the students correct) what the students haven’t got right or don’t see quite clearly.

·        Participation provides the students feedback : When teachers ask questions or otherwise seek student input over a topic, they are letting students know something about the importance of certain ideas and information.

·        Participation can be used to promote preparation : If an instructor regularly calls on students and asks questions about assigned reading or what’s in their notes from the previous class session, that can get students (at least some of them) coming to class prepared.

·        Participation can be used to control what’s happening in class : If a student is dozing off, texting, quietly chatting, or otherwise not attending to what’s happening, that student can be called on or the student next to the offender can be asked to respond.

·        Participation can be used to balance who’s contributing in class and how much : In the vast majority of cases, it is the teacher who selects the participant. If teachers will wait patiently and not always select the same student, if they look expectantly to others and confirm verbally and nonverbally the value of hearing from different people, they can influence who speaks and how much. Participation even helps teachers control how much they talk.

·        Participation encourages dialogue among and between students : Students can be asked to comment on what another student has said. A question can be asked and students can be invited to discuss possible answers with each other before the public discussion.

·        Participation can be used to develop important speaking skills : In many professional contexts, people need to be able to speak up in a group. They may need to offer information, ask questions, or argue for a different solution. People don’t learn to speak up in a group by reading about how to do it. It’s one of those skills best developed with practice. And it’s one of those skills that develops better with feedback. If participation is being used to teach students this public communication skill, they will need feedback.

·        Participation gives students the opportunity to practice using the language of the discipline : Most faculty have spoken astronomy, accounting, psychology, gerontology, political science, whatever the field for years, and they’ve forgotten how much of the language is new, different, and difficult for students. Participation gives students the chance to practice using a different vocabulary.

DEBATE

Debate is contention in argument; strife, dissension, quarrelling, controversy; especially a formal discussion of subjects before a public assembly or legislature, in Parliament or in any deliberative assembly. Debate is a method of formally presenting an argument in a disciplined manner. Through logical consistency, factual accuracy and some degree of emotional appeal to the audience are elements in debating, where one side often prevails over the other party by presenting a superior "context" and/or framework of the issue. The outcome of a debate may depend upon consensus or some formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than the objective facts. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and decide on differences, within a framework defining how they will interact. Debating teams are often helpful to students in teaching the writing process, as well as in teaching rhetoric.

Debates are a great tool for engaging students and livening up classroom curriculum. Using debates in the classroom can help students grasp essential critical thinking and presentation skills. Among the skills classroom debates can foster are abstract thinking, citizenship and etiquette, clarity, organization, persuasion, public speaking, research, and teamwork and cooperation. Using students’ natural talent of arguing and challenging authority, we can channel student energy into a positive learning assignment. Debates offer that natural avenue for teachers to facilitate analytical thinking.

Classroom debates enable students to work cooperatively, brainstorm ideas, develop vocabulary and read to support an opinion. Questioning allows students to explain and to explore additional facts for clarification purposes. These comprehension skills are essential for students to become competent readers and writers linking debates directly to the entire curriculum.

Debates allow students to become more proficient in speaking, researching, reading, and writing skills, and they promote reasoning as well as communication skills. Fact-filled and passionate debates provide the incentive for students of all academic and socioeconomic levels to become engaged and to participate in the debate process. In addition, debates, both formal and informal, are a vehicle for students to express their opinions assertively in a respectful manner on a relevant issue or topic.

While conducting a debate in the class room the following points should be kept in mind ;

§  Topic and date must be informed in advance so that the participants get sufficient time for preparation.

§  Topic should be clear, simple an interesting and must be one involving controversies.

§  Speakers are to be selected from the class and then divided into two groups to argue for or against the motion.

§  The chairman is to be nominated in advance.

§  When preparing for a debate , the arguments for either group must be arranged in logical sequence.

PEDAGOGIC COMMUNICATION

Pedagogic communication as a specific form of communication is characterised by three basic elements: a message, consisting mainly of teaching contents and pertaining to a given topic, or field of study; a social relation brought about by the act of communication (teaching) between the message originator (teacher) and the recipient (student): in other words, we are dealing here with a pedagogic relation which may take any possible shape within the frame of teacher-student interactions and which general pedagogy has taught us to consider. This field includes teaching, contents delivery, tutoring and moderation, positive and negative reinforcement, curriculum design, training schemes, managing the learning process, etc.

When observing teachers in their classrooms, one concludes that pedagogic communication corresponds to a particular use of language and of communication systems, well recognised and studied in other contexts (illustrations, sketches, graphics, fixed images, movies, videos, and so on). Thinking for a while about how you teach, one could perhaps agree upon a first classification of the ways we communicate:

1. Oral linguistic communication

Teacher speak and use written documents. Oral verbal language is the basic teaching and training vehicle, in fact. And we well know that this remains the most important means of communication in education.

2. Non-verbal communication

A teacher moves, has his particular mimics and looks, uses body language and posture to convey his message. As he moves he, in some way, occupies the classroom: he solicits his students attention, prompts one of them to give an answer, etc. In pedagogic face-to-face communication, the teacher uses for expressive and communicative purposes an impressive number of non-verbal indications that the recipients have no trouble interpreting. In this same category are also classified the teacher's changes of tone, vocal modulations and inflections, in brief, any intuitive element contributing to manifest the 'presence' of an interlocutor. This may look like a kind of paradox since these elements are well related to linguistic expression and are still not analysed in linguistics studies, in the strict meaning of the term. They are rather compounded with other non-verbal communication forms. As a conclusion, we may say that the emotive and affective aspects of pedagogic communication are mainly carried out by non-verbal communication forms.

3. Audio-scripto-visual communication

If oral language remains the main vehicle of teaching , other kinds discourse and of knowledge representation modes with educational objectives are evolving and are becoming gradually more widespread. Teachers primarily use written texts but also sound and/or visual documents. Educational software, electronic books and multimedia packages progressively become part of pedagogic routine. Likewise, books and textbooks come up with an increasing number of illustrations, and, if books are essentially made of verbal language cues (of linguistic communication), let's also remember that they force them into visual and graphic constraints, especially through page layout and typesetting. This is why we call this kind of communication scripto-visual communication. As is the case for verbal language, the audio-scripto-visual mode takes into account both informative and cognitive aspects of pedagogic communication.

EXPLANATION

An explanation is a set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies the causes, context, and consequences of those facts. This description may establish rules or laws, and may clarify the existing ones in relation to any objects, or phenomena examined. The components of an explanation can be implicit, and be interwoven with one another. An explanation is often underpinned by an understanding that is represented by different media such as music, text, and graphics. Thus, an explanation is subjected to interpretation, and discussion. Explanation is a way to uncover new knowledge, and to report relationships among different aspects of studied phenomena. Explanation attempts to answer the "why" question. Explanations have varied explanatory power.

An explanation is written to explain how and why something in the world happens. It is about actions rather than about things. Explanations play a valuable role in building and storing our knowledge. Technical and scientific writing are often expressed in this form. When writing explanations we establish that the phenomenon exists and then explain why or how this came about. The writer should acquire a great deal of content knowledge before beginning the explanation.

STRUCTURE OF EXPLANATION

Explanations have the following structure:

• Title

• General Statement Introducing Or Identifying The Phenomenon

• Series Of Sequenced Paragraphs

• Concluding Paragraph

• Labelled diagrams and flow charts.

Title

Explanations have a title that prepares and leads the reader to the text. This can appear in a variety of forms from a heading that names the action to a how and why question or a problem that is to be answered by the explanation.

General statement

The first paragraph has a general statement that introduces or identifies the scientific or technical phenomenon. It gives the audience a brief introduction to the event or thing and an understanding of the type of text that is to follow.

Sequenced statements

At this stage students’ explanations are developing causal relationships as well as sequential ones. The logically sequenced paragraphs explain why or how something happens rather than focusing on an object. The explanation sequence should consist of a series of happenings, actions, causes or processes that are the focus of the text type. This chain of actions, causes or events results in the phenomenon about which the explanation is written. Events may be related according to time or cause or through both and should be detailed and accurate, ensuring that all elements have been included. Sequences often develop by explaining how the events happen over a period of time: first this happens and then this is followed by the next event. It is important that in addition to researching the facts, students understand the reasons behind them. Attention should be focused on writing these reasons in their explanations. It is important that students realise that they will need to make thoughtful decisions about what to write and the order in which the information should be presented. Generally there is no human involved in the process of events.

Concluding statement

An optional concluding statement can tie up the explanation. The statement must show the overall attribute of the phenomena explained.

Labelled diagrams

Labelled diagrams and flow charts can be used to clarify information or to add additional information not included in the explanation. Particularly in scientific texts accurate diagrams and illustrations are important as they support the text. Students will need to research the topic, making notes, drawing diagrams and making drawings. They can make use of the scaffolds and outlines to assist with the development of these skills.

LANGUAGE FEATURES OF EXPLANATION

• Use of present tense.

• Use of complex noun groups to build detailed descriptions.

• Use of abstract nouns, e.g. heat, earthquakes.

• Use of pronouns for words already introduced in the text.

• Usually the subject is not human .

• Use of sentences that have a clear subject and verb agreement.

• Use of action verbs to explain cause .

• Use of adverbial phrases of time and place to tell where and when actions occurred,

• Use of connectives to link time sequences in a cause and effect sequence.

• Use of passive voice and nominalisation to link the events through cause and effect.

• Use of time conjunctions .

• Use of technical terms or word chains about a subject .

QUESTIONING

Questioning is a common technique used in English language teaching. The goal is to check if the students understand what they have been taught, and to enhance students’ involvement and to promote students’ creative thinking in classroom interaction. Questioning has been considered as one of the most essential and important techniques during instructional processes since Socrates times. Questioning takes up most of teacher talk and it has been improved to have a great influence on classroom interaction. Questioning has always been the most ubiquitous phenomenon observed in classroom, as well as one of the most frequently-adopted devices favored by most of the teachers.

Questioning is one kind of teaching active procedure. It is one teaching behavior way through teachers and students’ interaction, checking learning, promoting thought, consolidating knowledge, using knowledge, achieving teaching goals. Questioning is usually used as one kind of mutual exchange teaching skills between the teacher and students. It has been used widely in teaching till now. Classroom questioning is the main part of classroom teaching, and is one of the teaching methods to get the aim of classroom teaching. Teachers want to get students’ responses and the first step is to answer questions. Through consistent dialog and communication again, the teacher can get the answers they want and evaluate the students.

Questioning, as a general way used by teachers in class, plays an important role in classroom teaching. Questions are used to evaluate students’ knowledge and understanding of subject matter. Questions can help to review essential content in a subject. Questions can be used to control the social behavior of students. Questioning is a major form of human thought and interpersonal communication. The thinker employs a series of questions to explore an issue, an idea or something intriguing. Questioning is the process of forming and wielding that series to develop answers and insight.  There are mainly two types of questions Lower cognitive questions and higher cognitive questions. Lower cognitive questions (fact, closed, direct, recall, and knowledge questions) involve the recall of information. Higher cognitive questions (open-ended, interpretive, evaluative, inquiry, inferential, and synthesis questions) involve the mental manipulation of information to produce or support an answer.

Purpose of Questioning 

A teacher may vary his or her purpose in asking questions during a single lesson, or a single question may have more than one purpose. Teachers ask questions for a variety of purposes, including:

• To actively involve students in the lesson
• To increase motivation or interest
• To evaluate students’ preparation
• To check on completion of work
• To develop critical thinking skills
• To review previous lessons
• To nurture insights
• To assess achievement or mastery of goals and objectives
• To stimulate independent learning

REINFORCING

            Reinforcements are stimuli that can strengthen or weaken specific behaviors. Reinforcing is the process of strengthening or weakening particular behavior through positive and negative reinforcers. Reinforcement is used to help increase the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future by delivering a stimulus immediately after a response/behavior is exhibited.  In a classroom a teacher faces a variety of pupil behaviors, some of them are desirable for learning but some others are undesirable. There are a number of factors involved in reinforcing an individual's behaviors, and by applying reinforcements, we can increase and/or decrease behaviors as well. For bringing the right behavior teacher has to use positive and negative reinforcers.

The two most common forms are known as positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. It is important to note that, in this case, the words positive and negative do not mean good or bad. Instead, they mean you are adding (positive) or removing (negative) something in order to strengthen the desired behavior. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment; however, they are not the same.

Positive reinforcement occurs when a reward is given to strengthen a desired behavior. The reward will serve to strengthen the behavior because the child will be more likely to continue with this desired behavior in order to receive the reward. Likewise, negative reinforcement also strengthens a behavior, but it does so by removing something that is unwanted. Negative reinforcement should not be thought of as a punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you are increasing a behavior, whereas with punishment, you are decreasing a behavior.

ILLUSTRATION

According to Bodmer (1992), illustrations serve to "expand, explain, interpret, or decorate a written text". An illustration is a visualization or a depiction of a subject made by an artist, such as a drawing, sketch, painting, photograph, cinema or other kind of image of things seen, remembered or imagined, using a graphical representation. The word comes from the Latin word illustra'tio, illu'stro meaning enlighten, irradiate. Illustrations can be artistic images illustrating for example a text, poem, fashion, magazines, stamps or a book and very often illustrations were made for children's books. The aim of an illustration is to elucidate or decorate a story, poem or piece of textual information by providing a visual representation of something described in the text. Illustrations can also represent scientific images of flora, medicine or different processes, a biological or chemical processes or technical illustrations to give information on how to use something.